Alauddin Khalji was the first Sultan to maintain a large, permanent standing army directly under the state. He expanded it to protect India from Mongol invasions and enforce his administrative reforms. He paid soldiers in cash and introduced branding of ...
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Kitab-ul-Hind, written by Alberuni, is called the “mirror of 11th-century India” because it accurately describes Indian society, religion, customs, sciences, geography and philosophy. Alberuni’s unbiased and scientific approach makes the book a reliable source for understanding India during Mahmud Ghaznavi’s ...
The Battle of Vaihind (1008–09) was fought between Mahmud Ghaznavi and Anandpal, the Hindu Shahi ruler. Anandpal organized several Rajput chiefs to resist Mahmud’s advance, but internal disunity weakened the confederacy. Mahmud’s superior cavalry and tactics led to his victory, ...
According to Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tahqiq-i-Hind) in the 11th century, the Antyaj (classes below the Chaturvarna as Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) included both categories. They encompassed laborers and craftsmen involved in ‘unclean’ trades like washermen, cobblers, weavers, and shield-makers ...
Alberuni’s full name was Abu Raihan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni. A renowned Persian polymath, he visited India during Mahmud Ghaznavi’s reign. He mastered several sciences, including astronomy, mathematics, linguistics and geography. His work Kitab-ul-Hind reflects his deep interest in Indian ...