From what is penicillin obtained on an industrial scale?

Penicillin is obtained on an industrial scale from Penicillium chrysogenum. This fungus was originally isolated by Alexander Fleming in 1928 from a strain of Penicillium mold. Later, Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Florey successfully purified and mass-produced penicillin from this species, marking a turning point in medicine. Penicillium chrysogenum naturally produces penicillin as a secondary metabolite, but industrial-scale production involves fermentation processes in large bioreactors. In these controlled environments, Penicillium chrysogenum is grown on a nutrient-rich medium, typically containing sugars, nitrogen sources, and minerals. As the fungus grows, it secretes penicillin into the surrounding medium. The broth is then harvested and subjected to extraction and purification steps to isolate penicillin from other components. This purified penicillin is then formulated into various pharmaceutical products, including injectable solutions, tablets, and ointments, for medical use. The industrial-scale production of penicillin from Penicillium chrysogenum has revolutionized medicine, making antibiotics widely available and significantly reducing mortality rates from bacterial infections worldwide. This process highlights the importance of biotechnological advancements in meeting global healthcare needs and combating infectious diseases.