Aryl chlorides and bromides are prepared by electrophilic substitution of arenes with chlorine and bromine, respectively, in the presence of Lewis acid catalysts like iron or iron(III) chloride. The ortho and para isomers can be easily separated based on their ...

The Swarts reaction involves heating an alkyl chloride or bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as AgF, Hg₂F₂, CoF₂, or SbF₃. This reaction is employed for the synthesis of alkyl fluorides, making it the most effective method ...

Alkyl iodides are synthesized in the Finkelstein reaction by reacting alkyl chlorides or bromides with NaI in dry acetone. NaCl or NaBr formed is precipitated, facilitating the forward reaction according to Le Chatelier’s Principle.

The carbon-oxygen bond in phenols has partial double bond character, making it stronger than a single bond. This poses a challenge for its breakage, rendering the earlier methods ineffective for the preparation of aryl halides.

Nucleophiles are electron-rich species that attack the electron-deficient part of a substrate molecule, leading to nucleophilic substitution reactions. In these reactions, a nucleophile reacts with a haloalkane, replacing the existing nucleophile, and the departing halogen forms a halide ion.

Haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents because the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and solvent molecules have similar strength to the attractions being broken in separate haloalkane and solvent molecules, leading to higher solubility in organic solvents.

The distribution of the fourth electron in d⁴ ions depends on the relative magnitudes of crystal field splitting (∆₀) and pairing energy (P). The two possible patterns are either pairing with an existing electron in the t₂g level or avoiding ...

In octahedral coordination entities, the single d electron occupies the lower energy t₂g orbital. For d⁴ ions, the fourth electron can either pair with an existing electron in the t₂g level or occupy the higher energy eg level, depending on ...

The spectrochemical series is an experimentally determined sequence based on the absorption of light by complexes with various ligands. It provides insights into the ligand’s ability to cause crystal field splitting.

The dx² – y² and dz² orbitals in an octahedral complex experience more repulsion due to their orientation towards ligands, resulting in higher energy. The t₂g orbitals decrease in energy, while the eg orbitals increase by (3/5) ∆₀ and (2/5) ...