River basins provided fertile silt, abundant water and transportation networks, but recurrent seasonal flooding, soil erosion and changing river courses forced societies to invent complex dikes, reservoirs and cooperative governance systems.
The environment offers human societies both opportunities as well as challenges. Explain with reference to early farming communities and river-valley civilisations.
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(i) Environmental opportunities: Fertile river plains like the Indus, Nile, Tigris and Euphrates provided nutrient-rich alluvial soils, perennial freshwater and natural transport networks that produced agricultural surpluses and supported urban centers. (ii) Environmental challenges: Societies faced sudden catastrophic floods, shifting watercourses and water shortages, requiring collective labor to dig irrigation canals, erect check dams and establish organized municipal administration.
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