Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to alcohols by catalytic hydrogenation, employing finely divided metals like platinum, palladium, or nickel as catalysts. Alternatively, sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH₄) can be used.

In hydroboration–oxidation, borane adds to the double bond with the boron atom attaching to the sp² carbon carrying more hydrogen atoms, contrary to Markovnikov’s rule. The reaction yields excellent alcohol formation.

Hydroboration–oxidation involves the reaction of alkenes with diborane to form trialkyl boranes, which are then oxidized to alcohols by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide. This process contradicts Markovnikov’s rule as the boron atom attaches to the ...

The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973. DDT’s chemical stability, fat solubility, and slow metabolism in animals led to its accumulation in fatty tissues, causing environmental concerns and contributing to its ban in the U.S., ...

DDT’s global use increased significantly after World War II due to its effectiveness against malaria-spreading mosquitoes and typhus-carrying lice. However, problems emerged in the late 1940s, including the development of insect resistance and high toxicity towards fish.

Paul Muller of Geigy Pharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the insecticidal effectiveness of DDT in 1939. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1948 for this discovery.

Freons released into the atmosphere, including those used in refrigeration, eventually reach the stratosphere. In the stratosphere, freons can initiate radical chain reactions that disturb the natural ozone balance, posing a significant environmental concern related to ozone layer depletion.

Freon 12 is manufactured from tetrachloromethane using the Swarts reaction. Freons are widely used in industrial applications for aerosol propellants, refrigeration, and air conditioning.

Freons are chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane. They are stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-corrosive, and easily liquefiable gases. Freon 12 (CCl₂F₂) is a common industrial freon used in refrigeration and air conditioning, produced from tetrachloromethane by the Swarts reaction.

Carbon tetrachloride, when released into the air, rises to the atmosphere and contributes to ozone layer depletion. This depletion is associated with increased human exposure to ultraviolet rays, potentially leading to skin cancer, eye diseases, immune system disorders, and other ...