According to Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tahqiq-i-Hind) in the 11th century, the Antyaj (classes below the Chaturvarna as Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) included both categories. They encompassed laborers and craftsmen involved in ‘unclean’ trades like washermen, cobblers, weavers, and shield-makers ...
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Alberuni’s full name was Abu Raihan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni. A renowned Persian polymath, he visited India during Mahmud Ghaznavi’s reign. He mastered several sciences, including astronomy, mathematics, linguistics and geography. His work Kitab-ul-Hind reflects his deep interest in Indian ...