The primary source of conflict between the Mughal rulers and the Safavid Shahs of Iran was the ownership of Kandahar. Strategically located, Kandahar was a crucial hub for the overland trade routes connecting Persia, India and Central Asia. Furthermore, holding Kandahar provided essential defensive depth against invasions through the northwestern passes, making it imperative for the security of the Mughal Empire. Its repeated capture and recapture by both empires, most famously under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, made it the single most contested territory.

The most pivotal factor in Babur’s victory at the First Battle of Panipat (1526) was the innovative application of the Tulughma system—a military tactic borrowed from the Uzbeks. This strategy involved dividing the army to allow swift flanking movements that could envelop the enemy’s center from both the rear and the sides. Crucially, Babur integrated this with the effective use of gunpowder artillery (cannons) and muskets, shielded by carts (araba). This combination neutralized Lodi’s numerical advantage and demoralized his troops and war elephants.

The correct sequence of the four major battles fought by Humayun is: Daura (1532), which was fought against the Afghans led by Mahmud Lodi; Chausa (1539), the first major loss to Sher Shah Suri; Kannauj or Bilgram (1540), the decisive defeat that forced Humayun into exile; and finally, the Battle of Sirhind (1555). [Image illustrating the four major battle locations] The victory at Sirhind fifteen years later was critical, as it crushed the Afghan power under the Sur dynasty and successfully paved the way for Humayun’s ultimate return and the re-establishment of the Mughal Empire.